In times of war, purely civilian means, in particular transport and communications, have always been used for military purposes, eg container ships were used by Britain’s Royal Navy during the conflict in the Falklands. This is still the case today, even though troops are more often deployed to keep the peace. The opposite is also true, ie humanitarian or civilian security operations often welcome the use of military means – men, equipment and procedures.

Today, the concept of ‘civil-military’ action has the wind in its sails. “Cooperation between civilian and military elements will be the absolute priority of the European Union Military Committee following the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty,” said the committee’s outgoing President, French General Henri Bentégeat, on 4 November. The former chief of staff of the French Army even sees as “the real revolution in military affairs” the fact that armed forces are necessary but not enough to resolve a crisis, restore peace or restore the normal functioning of a state. In short, noted General Bentégeat, “the only way to manage a crisis correctly is through civil-military cooperation”.

It is certain that Europe’s capacities to plan and carry out military and civilian operations will escalate in the coming years. The fact that certain means may not be earmarked for but are at least adaptable to dual civilian and military use is nothing new. In ancient times, horses and access roads were used for both. The idea of a total confrontation between two societies, ie encompassing all the means that each of the adversaries can place at the service of victory, without any distinction between civilian and military, dates back to the 19th century, although it was not fully developed until the 20th century.

The basic complementarity between civilian and military actions to achieve an objective, such as taking control of a region or a whole country, has also been around for a long time. The first reflection on this subject dates back to Europe’s colonial expansion. Then, during the 1950s to 1970s, came the wars of decolonisation, with on one side the guerrilla warfare theoreticians, for whom everything was ‘political’, and on the other the officers, who conceptualised the counter-insurrection in all its facets, including management of civilian populations. This is the historic background and ideological context of a very general growing interpenetration between the civilian and military spheres.

However, this interaction between the civilian and military dimensions is timely today due to two recent factors. First, in its quest for a global diplomatic role, the EU plans to use its ‘soft power’, focused more on the civilian dimension that the traditional ‘hard power’ of the American superpower, which alone accounts for more than half the planet’s military spending. Second, the cuts in military budgets after the end of the Cold War, aggravated by the growing costs of equipment and the current context of economic crisis, reduces Europe’s capacities for action.

For all the reasons of economies of scale and commitment doctrine mentioned above, the idea has naturally occurred to foster collaboration between the civilian and military sectors from the point of the development of new equipment with potentially ‘dual’ use.

Concrete cooperation projects are still in the early stages, however. On the other hand, it is easier to draw up a list of areas where the EU countries are already giving thought to joint civilian and military research:

- observation satellites, which have obvious complementarities for civilian security and development (weather, consequences of global warming, tsunami alerts) and for military prevention (proliferation)

- space electromagnetic watch-keeping systems

- drones, with civilian and/or military functions

- on-board reconnaissance and electronic warfare means for combat aircraft or jumbo jets, such as the future A400 M transport aircraft and the Atlantic 2 maritime patrol aircraft or its successor

- improvement of capacities for air space and territorial approach surveillance; such systems also contribute to training for air forces and the security of civilian users of the air space. This implies a modernisation of radar systems

- computer defence (cyber war), an area where the security and defence aspects are closely tied

- protection of populations and armies against atomic, radiation, bacteriological and chemical threats, which necessitates immediate interoperability between defence means and civil protection or home affairs services in each EU member state

- security of maritime surroundings and the fight against trafficking (drugs, illegal immigration, pillaging of natural resources) and preparation for major risks (natural disasters), which by definition imply civilian-military collaboration.

In this overall perspective, it will be essential to check far upstream whether the technological solutions developed by civilian R&D can lend themselves to military use.

To sum up, the aim is to develop synergy on so-called dual capacities in order to optimise civilian scientific research budgets for the military sector and vice-versa. The aim is to save money and avoid duplication.

The French EU Presidency underlined the need for cooperation between the civilian and military sectors pending application of Protocol 10 of the Lisbon Treaty, which provides for permanent structural cooperation. The current Swedish EU Presidency has made such synergy one of its priorities.

WHO WILL DO WHAT?

Once the programmes to be implemented have been agreed upon, their financing will still have to be assessed. Next, the cost-sharing formula among the different EU states participating will have to be agreed. This will include developing terms for a member state’s access to these European means for national missions, in times of peace or in times of crisis.

Optimal solutions will also be needed for existing institutions and agreements.

The EU Satellite Centre in Torrejon (Spain), which will have access to images from German, French and Italian observation satellites (MUSIS project), is an example. Is a purely material management tool needed or a dual civilian-military structure? An essentially civilian system, placed occasionally under European military authority or national use?

Lastly, the question of pan-European – intergovernmental or Community – bodies is expected to arise. These would be tasked with supervising the design of or implementing dual-use equipment.

The European Defence Agency (EDA), by virtue of the Lisbon Treaty, will play a capacity-auditing role. Today, it is working on the inclusion of drones in air traffic. This involves both a civilian and military aspect and raises very sensitive cross-border issues. For the future, the EDA is potentially a candidate for a major role on dual capacity (helicopters, intelligence, medical support and satellite means). The boundary between its role and that of the military procurement agency, the Organisation for Joint Armament Cooperation (OCCAR), which manages the A400M programme, could be problematical. How far will the EDA be authorised to handle programme design? Should it be allowed to participate in strategy development?

Another institution, Frontex, may also have the prospect of becoming a European civilian security agency that goes beyond its present task of coordinating national activities at borders. The Commission is drafting a communication for the start of next year on an extension of the Frontex mandate to enable it to procure equipment directly.

The future European External Action Service will include a planning and crisis management division made up of staff formerly in charge of civilian capacities, military capacities or the planning of civilian and/or military operations, as well as members of the EU Military Staff.

Last but not least, the problem on the ground will be to overcome military reluctance to obey civilians and vice-versa. How can cooperation be established between the two command chains, one under the military HQ and the other under the civilian operations planning centre, both based in Brussels? By the time that point has been reached, it can be hoped that a great deal of progress will have been made in this area of dual-use equipment.

To sum up, the aim is to save money and avoid duplication